Logos λόγος
Logos is persuasion through the speech itself: its words, tropes and arguments. For Aristotle, it covers both the images of language and the two forms of argument, the example and the enthymeme, whose conclusion need not be necessary, only probable.
A word with many meanings
Logos is undoubtedly the most problematic concept in the fundamental triad of rhetoric, not least because the word had a rich and multifaceted meaning in ancient Greece. In addition to “word”, “speech” and “language”, logos could also mean “reasoning”, “narrative”, “argument” and “thinking”, among other things.
Logos as a means of proof
All of this comes together in Aristotle’s idea of logos as a means of proof: it is about how we use language in different ways to convince an audience. This can involve the use of tropes and figures, such as how a metaphor establishes a certain image of what we are talking about, but also how arguments are connected and whether they are logically sound.
According to Aristotle, there are two forms of argumentative proof that belong to rhetoric: the example and the enthymeme.
The example
With the paradigmatic example, the speaker uses a real or fictional example to strengthen a thesis. Aristotle illustrates this with an argument he attributes to Socrates: those in power should not be chosen by lot, as was common in ancient Athens, but on the basis of skill. We would never let the lot decide which of the sailors should steer the ship and act as captain; instead, we choose the most knowledgeable.
The enthymeme
The enthymeme, on the other hand, is a kind of argument by deduction. Unlike the syllogism, however, it need not be logically valid, only probable. One of Aristotle’s examples comes from the Athenian politician Demades, who argued that the policies of his opponent Demosthenes had caused all the misfortunes that befell Athens in the war against Macedonia.
The argument rests on the premise that what happens first (Demosthenes’ policies) is the cause of what happens afterwards (the misfortunes of war). It is of course possible, perhaps even probable, that Demosthenes’ proposals did lead to the misfortunes of war, but it is by no means necessary.
Logos rarely works alone
Probable arguments are therefore not enough to convince us. In Demades’ case, we must also find him credible in order to trust his conclusions, and better still feel anger towards Demosthenes, for the argument to really persuade. Logos works together with ethos and pathos.
Do your arguments need to hold up under scrutiny, not just sound good? That is what we train in my courses.
Questions
Is logos the same as logic?
No. Logos includes logically sound reasoning, but also the images of language and arguments that are only probable. Rhetoric deals with matters that can be otherwise.
What is the difference between an enthymeme and a syllogism?
A syllogism is logically valid: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be. An enthymeme rests on probabilities and on what the audience already believes, and often leaves a premise unstated.
Where does Aristotle discuss the example and the enthymeme?
In the Rhetoric, Book I (1356a–1358a) and Book II (1393a–1403a), where the examples of the sailors and of Demades are also found.
